THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE

 

INTRODUCTION

 The Turko-Afghan kings of Delhi lay the groundwork for the eventual formation of the Vijayanagar kingdom by invading peninsular India. The first Muslim general to conquer the Hindu States of South India across the Vindhyas was Ala-ud-din. Ala-ud-din and his generals had gradually conquered all of South India, but they had done it by using an indirect control strategy. It seems that Ala-ud-din's goal in his numerous invasions of the Deccan and the farther south was to use them as a cash cow for the gold, which he frequently desperately needed to maintain his army. Because the Tughlaqs adopted a direct control strategy, their rise to power signalled the start of a new era in peninsular India's history. 

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq aspired to directly rule the entire Deccan peninsula as soon as he took the throne in Delhi in September of 1320 A.D. The Khalji Sultans had previously been content to cement their dominance over the states in the south. However, the Delhi rulers' approach towards the southern states changed after Ghiyas-ud-din ascended to the Delhi throne. Every effort was made to incorporate the vanquished nations into the Delhi empire as provinces. Ulugh Khan, also known as Muhammad Bin Tughluq, was dispatched by Ghiyas-ud-din's eldest son Jauna to  recapture the southern Hindu states. In 1321 A.D., Ulugh Khan's initial attempt to defeat Warangal was unsuccessful. He was deported back to Warangal in 1323 A.D. This time, Prataparudra killed himself while being held captive, leading to the fall of the Kakatiya dynasty. The humiliation and defeat of Mabar came next. By the year 1325 A.D., the Delhi Sultanate had absorbed the Yadava, the Kakatiya, and a significant portion of the Pandyan dominions. Muslim provincial governors were seated at Devagiri, Hoyasala kingdom, Warangal, and Madura  

Things changed drastically in the south with the arrival of Muslim control. The people started to suffer under the cruel and repressive rule of the Maliks, Amirs, and other officers. Had the new rulers been satisfied with gaining more political authority, the Hindu population would have accepted them without resistance. However, the Turkish conquerors' soldiers behaved like looters. The modern Vilasa copper plate grant of Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka vividly depicts the misery of Andhradesa under the Turkish. According to the report, "The rich were tortured in a hundred sinful ways just to get money." Some people gave up on their lives just by seeing the Parasikars (Muslims). It was forbidden for Brahmins to carry out their religious rites and rituals. Idols were broken and desecrated, temples were destroyed, and all the Agraharas—which had long been enjoyed by the most learned—were taken away. Husbandmen, rich and poor alike, were forced to relinquish their crops and fruits, which led to their downfall. People were unable to consider their money, spouses, or other material possessions as their own during that terrible disaster. The miserable Yavanas (Muslims) took constant pleasure in sipping wine. slaying the Brahmins, sporting in amour, and battling the flesh of cows. How could the world of living things survive if such were the case? Under such circumstances, with no hope of a rescue even in the wildest dreams, the region of Telinga, tormented in this manner by those Yavana soldiers who were just like Rakshasas, was in flames like a forest surrounded by wild fire".

 Gangamba, in her 'Madhura Vijaya', enumerates similar things, describing the condition of the south under the Muslim rule characterised by oppressive nature, religious fanaticism and intolerance. The iconoclastic zeal spurred them to destruction of the Hindu temples. On those ruins, with the same materials, mosques were built. Alexander Rae referred to the big mosque' at Rajahmundry as a good example of a Hindu temple (the temple of Venugopal swami of the Eastern Chalukyan times), retaining its original features but converted into a Mohammad an mosque. Similarly, at Eluru and Kondapalli also the Hindu structures were dismantled and mosques were built. Apart from this, there was a violent shake up of the entire social fabric. The traditional institutions of the land were overthrown and the age-long practices were upset. The people could not reconcile themselves to the new dispensation. There was an outburst of national indignation and patriotic enthusiasm for driving out the aliens.

 

EMERGENCE OF VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE

The widespread discontent among the people towards the Tughluq regime was exploited by the dislodged and disgruntled princes, both Hindu and Muslim of the South. The unrest was spearheaded into a general movement of resistance against the Delhi imperialism. Especially after the Sultan left for the North due to Kishlu Khan's rebellion, the movement picked up momentum. The Musunuri chiefs, the Padma Nayakas and the Reddis took the lead in Telangana and coastal Andhra and established independent kingdoms. In the ceded districts, Araviti Somadeva drove away Malik Naib from Anegondi and freed Kampili from the Muslim rule. Ballala ll also repudiated his allegiance to the Sultan and began to attack Kampili. In 1334 A.D. the Nawab of Madura declared independence.

Barani, Isami and Nuniz and the local records recorded the events that led to establishment of the Vijayanagar empire. lt is recorded that when the revolt broke out in Kampili and the position of Malik Naib, the deputy of the Sultan waS made extremely precarious, the Malik informed his master about his pitiable plight and appealed for immediate action. Then the Sultan's choice fell on Harihara and Bukka. The two Sangama brothers, who were related to and officers under Kampilidevarava, were previously taken captives to Delhi and forced to embrace Islam. The Sultan, impressed by their upright conduct, set them at liberty and sent with an army to Kampili to reconquer it from the rebels and rule the province as his deputies. The two Sanganma brothers thus returned to Kampili but they initially faced many difficulties. The locals could not immediately trust them by reason of their conversion into Islam. Therefore they established themselves at Gutti and probably securing the blessings of the 'celebrated Vidyatirtha, the pontiff of the Sringeri Matha, and through the instrumentality of the latter, apostatized and soon endeared themselves to the people. Then they occupied Anegondi: As Barani mentions, when Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka captured Warangal from Malik Maqbul, Harihara proclaimed independence in Kampili and thus in 1335 A.D. established his independent kingdom at Anegondi. Since Anegondi on the northern bank.the river Tungabhadra was.as a capital not impregnable to the enemies, Harihara I thought of a new well-fortified and safe capital. On religious and strategic considerations, the foundations were laid down in the same year for the new city of Vijayanagar where the ruins of Vijayanagar now exist opposite to Anegondi, on the southern bank of the river Tungabhadra. The task of completing the construction of the city was entrusted to Bukka 1.

 

ADMINISTRATION OF VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE 

 Founded in 1336 A.D., the little state of Vijayanagar gradually expanded into a powerful empire. As a result of this expansion, its rulers also realised how much good governance determined the country's strength and stability. Thus, they set up a productive administrative framework and periodically made adjustments in response to changing circumstances. The government is distinguished by a decentralised structure and a powerful centre.

SALIENT FEATURES OF ADMINISTRATION 

 Different views have been put forward by the historians about the character of Vijayanagar state system. Some scholars have emphasised that Vijayanagar was a war state. But this needs to be redefined in the context of prevailing medieval circumstances when the conflict between the Vijaynagar and the Bahmanis was almost perennial. So, military preparedness was a must for the very existence and survival of the state. Vijaynagar rulers established high ideals of kingship as is evident from "Amuktamalyada" by Krishnadevaraya where he presents certain duties and responsibilities a king is required to fulfil. Another unique aspect of Vijaynagar Sovereignty was that it was symbolic and ritual in nature and king's political harmony was established over vast areas through the instrument of religion. For instance, during the Mahanavami festival it was the king and not the Brahmins to who perform the rituals. Chiefs and military commanders from far- flung areas participated which was symbolic of their recognising king's sovereignty. 

 The administrative system was centralised in character but the centralization had received a setback in the wake of emergence of Nayakas as semi-autonomous power centres in the later part of the empire. This system was known as Nayankara system where a piece of land called "Amaram" was given by the king to the military commanders. They were not the representatives of the king but enjoyed a greater degree of autonomy and saw their loyalty and service to the king and paid a part of their service to the King. Though the Vijaynagar Empire symbolised the Political resurgence of the Hindu elements but there are no ciear-cut evidence to support the Hindu character of the state. The Vijaynagar rulers exhibited a catholic political approach. Muslim soldiers were appointed in the army and other sectors also enjoyed autonomy. it Is true that the Brahmins were supported but it was only to counterbalance the increasing power of the Kannada Nayakas and also as the Brahmins had powerful contacts with the people, they served as a link between the king and the people. 

 The role of Brahmins was another outstanding feature of Vijaynagar state system. They played an important political and secular role. Brahmins were appointed as "Durgadaniks" meaning incharge of the forts. They also shouldered the responsibility of constructing the forts for which they were given a share of the revenue of the crown-land called the "Bhandarvada". A large number of Brahmins were appointed I the imperial secretariat and were known as "Telgu-Niyogis".  As in any other South Indian state temples played an important role in Vijayanagar polity too. Temples were institutions through which significant political control was established. They played a role in providing legitimacy and sustaining the kingship. Sectarian leaders called " Mathadhipatis" who were Brahmins represented local temples. King maintained good relations with them as they had influence over the local population. Thus, temples acted as a link between the king and the people. Temples emerged as powerful institutions because of various land grants and cash-endowments made to them. They performed functions like tax-collection, promoting development etc. Thus, they played a quasi-political role. 

 Vijaynagar state system can be conceived to some extent as "Incorporative-regime" ie. one that sought to win itself the loyalty and military capability of a large number of warriors throughout the Peninsula. It was a kind of courtship by the Vijaynagar kings and the aim was to strengthen the empire. In Vijaynagar, village assemblies of the Cholas were replaced by the "Ayagar System" consisting of 12 members like Gauda, Senabhova etc. Thus, the Vijaynagar state system not only adopted various old traditions and practices but also evolved some of its own, which were unique to it and provided it with a distinct character and form.  Vijaynagar state system was also characterısed by the presence of a strong imperialistic outlook. Most the rulers pursued an aggressive and expansionist foreign policy. The perennial conflicts with the neighbouring states was an essential feature of Vijaynagar state. 

 

 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE 

 The social life of Vijayanagar is of great interest. The reanimation of Hindu life, resulting in the revival of the ancient Dharma modified to some extent by the experience of the age, was seen during this period. The kings endeavoured to protect the Varnashrama Dharma arid maintain the social solidarity. The prevalence of filial love was instrumental in bringing together into closer relationship the various conflicting  elements in the social life of the  people. The caste system of the Hindu society had already lost its rigid nature. The Brahmins were Still the most respected members of the society, They were found in almost every Walk of life, enjoying even nlgh offices as ministers and generals in the state. It is curious to note that the name kshatriya did not figure during this period. The commercial and agricultural classes might have made up the vitality. 

 The rise or a social consciousness among the different communities was the significant feature of the social history of the later Vijayanagar period. At the lower levels, communities like the Kambalattars (originally shepherds) followed the system of polyandry and post-puberty marriages. Their women were noted for loose morality. Prostitution was widely prevalent. Devadasi, Sati and slavery systems existed. The writings of poets and Scholars like Sarvajna and Vemana reveal the new spirit of. reform against social evils like caste restrictions and untouchability: 

 The rulers as well the ruled bestowed attention on agriculture. The state provided irrigational facilities Industries like, diamond-mining were fully developed. The foreign visitors like Razzak and Paes were profoundly impressed by the fully vigorous economic life with huge population, rich bazaars, number of skilled craftsmen and dealers in precious stones and other articles in the imperial capital. Razzak observes the importance of roses in the daily life of the citizen. Temples, as landlords and bankers, because of large endowments made to them, played an important part in the public economy of the period. Foreign trade carried on through important ports like Hannover, Bhatkal, Negapatnam, Pulicat and others by merchants and traders by forming into organisations, brought in prosperity adding to the luxury and magnificence of court life. The luxuries of the king and his officers contributed to the splendour of the imperial city, but the hard condition of the peasants, characteristic of even the best period of Vijayanagar, should not be forgotten in estimating the glories of the Vijayanagar empire. 

 

RELIGION 

 Though primarily Vijayanagar fostered and developed the Hindu culture, it had the tradition of great tolerance towards all religions so that bigotry was completely unknown. Inscriptions attest to the fact that religious persecution was never tolerated. Reconciliation between different religious sects and equal protection to all were referred in the records.  Though the Vijayanagar kings fought constantly against the Muslims, no disrespect was shown to Islam at any stage. On the other hand, they gave complete religious freedom to the Muslim soldiers in their service. Devaraya Il built a mosque for their use in the capital. Ramaraya greatly developed Turkavada in his time.  Barboasa. the Portuguese navigator, testifies to the spirit of tolerance of Krishnadevarava in the following words : The King allows such freedom that every man may come and go and live according to his own creed without suffering any annoyance and without enquiry, whether he is a Christian, Jew, Moor or Heathen-- great equity and justice is observed by all." 

Jainism, which did not recognise the authority of the Vedas, received patronage and protection from the rulers. Bukka I gave protection to the Jains of Penugonda, Hospet and others from the Vaishanavites of Srirangam. Irugappa, a staunch Jaine and who was the Dandanayaka of Harihara ll built Jain temples at Hampi, Kanchi and other sacred places. Devaraya ll permitted the Jains to build a temple at the capital in the Pansupari bazar. With the coming of the Portuguese to India, Christianity began to spread in the south in the sixteenth century.The Jesuit priests propagated their faith, The Portuguese governors and the Jesuit missionaries, with their combined efforts, converted the Paravas, the Fisher folk on the fishery coast of Tamilnadu during the reign of Achyutaraya. But their policy of turning religious propaganda to political purposes roused the resentment of tolerant Vijayanagar kings. Ramaraya promptly sent an expedition to fishery coast. 

 Hinduism got a great impetus and protection during the Vijayanagar period. The threat of lslam on one hand and the influence to the Sringeri gurus like Bharati Tirtha and Vidvaranva reduced the sectarian fanaticism. The Smartha, Saiva and Vaishnava sects flourished freely in the empire. The Sangamas were Saivites and their family deity was Virupaksha. Scholars like Chamarasa made their contributions to Saivite literature. Srivaishnavism became popular during the period of the Saluvas and the Tuluvas. Tirupati, Ahobalam and Snnangam were greatly developed. The cult of lord Venkatesa had its ascendency in the time of Krishnadevaraya. any Matthas of Srivaishnavas flourished at Ahobalam, Parakala and other places. The family in the time of Krishna and Narahari Tirtha. Akshobhya, navism or Dvaita philosophy of Tatacharyas became prominent Achyuta. With the preachings of Jaya Tirtha and Vyasaraya, Vaishalso made considerable progress. 

 

DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE 

The birth of a significant literary movement in South India and the establishment of the Vijayanagar kingdom occurred at the same time. Numerous distinguished poets, philosophers, and religious instructors wrote works of great significance in Sanskrit as well as the regional languages Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil, all under the patronage of the empire's rulers. Some of the kings, like as Devaraya I and Krishnadevaraya, were also accomplished writers and scholars, and they attracted scholars and poets to surround themselves

SANSKRIT LITERATURE 

 Vast literature was produced under the influence of the remarkable religious stir and spiritual ferment of the age. Vidyasankara, Vidyaranya, Sayana and his son Madhava and Madhava Mantri composed their commentaries on the Vedic literature, the Parasarasmriti and Manusmriti etc. They produced hundreds of works on all aspects of Indian culture including astronomy grammar, medicine, poetics and music. Sayana's Vedartha prakasha', a commentary on the Vedas was undoubtedly the greatest work of the period, Vidyaranya's works include 'Pansara Madhaviya', 'Sankara Vijaya' and 'Rajakatenirnaya'. Isvai Dikshita wrote two commentaries on Ramayana in the reign of Krishnadevaraya, Vedantadesika, Srikantha Pandita and Jaya Tirtha added to the Vaishnava, Saiva and Madhava literatures respectively. Gangamba and Tirumalamba produced their historical poems Madhuravijayam' and Varadambikaparinayam' respectively. 

 A family of hereditary poets called Dindimas flourished from the time of Harihara I down to Achyutadevaraya. Among them, Dindima Rajanatha Il wrote ´Saluvabhyudayam' and Rajanatha )l wrote 'Achyutarayabhyudayam'. Among the royal authors, Devaraya li was credited with the authorship of 'Mahanataka Sudhanidhi.' Knshnadevaraya, besides being a patron of scholars, was himself a gifted scholar both in Telugu and Sanskrit. His Sanskrit works include Madalasa Charita, Rasamanjari' and Jambavati Kalyanam'. Among the works on music, erotics, medicine etc., mention may be made of Vidyaranya's Sangitasara' on music. Devaraya l's 'Ratiratna Pnadipika' on erotics, Sayana's 'Ayurveda Sudhanidhi and Lakshmana Pandita's Vaidyarajavallabham' on medicine and Sayana's ‘Dhatuvrdhi’ on grammer. 

 

TELUGU LITERATURE 

 The bulk of the best part of the Teluguliterature, which affords the greatest delight in the minds of the Andhras, is the product of direct patronage of Vijayanagar emperors and their Viceroys. It is equally a striking phenomenon, that the above literature has grown both in volume and variety under Vijayanagar dynasty. From the time of the Kanakabhisheka of Srinatha by Devaraya I, Telugu began to dominate the Vijayanagar Court. It was in the time of Knshnadevaraya that Telugu literature made its greatest advance. "Under his lead, the practice of translating from Sanskrit originals was generally given up and independent prabandhas which handled a Puranic story or some invented theme after the manner of Mahakavya in Sanskrit came more in vogue. Krishnadevaraya. an accomplished poet in Telugu also, wrote Amuktamalyada in a very abstruse and complicated style, showing the depth of his learning. Tradition associates Krishna's name with the Ashiadiggajas, the eight elephants who supported the world of Telugu literature. Allasani Peddana stande out foremost among them. He dedicated his work 'Manucharitra' to his patron-king. Nandi Timmana, Dhurjati. Madayyagari Mallana and other poets also received the patronage of Krishnadevaraya, Bhattumurti, Pingali Surana and Tenali Ramakrishna. who belonged to post-Krishnadevaraya 's period, became immortal with their contributions

 

KANNADA LITERATURE 

 As in Sanskrit and Telugu, in Kannada also a large number of literary works, centring round the three principal religions Jainism, Virasaivism and Brahmanism, appeared during this period. Among the Jaina works, Madhura’s "Dharmanatha Purana', Uritta Vilasa's "Dharmapariksha Sastrasara', Salva's Jaina version of Bharata, may be mentioned. In the time of Devaraya Il, the Virasaivites rivalled the Jains in developing the Kannada language and literature. They preferred prose medium, Chamarasa, the author of Prabhuingalila, Bommarasa, Kallarasa Tontada and Siddhesvara were some of the scholars renown. Among the Brahmanical poets, Kumar a Vyasa  Timmana, and Lakshmisha were popular. Then a vast body of literature was composed by Vaishnava singers like Sripadaraya, Purandharadasa and Kanakadasa. TAMIL LITERATURE The feudatories of Vijayanagar like the Nayaks of Madurai and even the Pandyan chiefs bestowed attention on the development of Tamil literature. Krishnaraya also patron ised Tamil scholars. Kumara Saraswati, Jnanaprakasha, Tatvaprakasha and Harihara received his patronage. On Dravida Saivism, commentaries were produced. 

 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE 

 Under Vijayanagar, South Indian art attained a certain fullness and freedom of rich expression in keeping with the consciousness of the great task of the empire, namely the preservation and development of all that remained of Hinduism against the onslaughts of Islam. in this period temples became very elaborate both in structure and organisation. Even old temples were amplified by the addition of pillared hails, pavilions and other subordinate structures." In conformity with the majestic resources of the Vijayanagar empire, there was an elaboration of ceremonial observations during this period. These observations were also reflected in the enlargement of temple structures. Separate shrines celebrating various festivals were erected. The notable contributions of the Vijayanagar craftsmen were a shrine. to goddess, pillared halls and pavilions like Kalyanamandapa and the lofty gopurams. 

 In the Vijayanagar period two different schools of architecture were flouring side by side-- the Dravidian and the Indo-Saracenic--and the style of some of the Hindu monuments was influenced by the Indo-Saracenic style. Most of the architectural structures built during the Vijayanagar period were confined to their capital cíty at Hampi. The gigantic boulders that surrounded Hampi supplied ample material for construction of the structure. Stone of two varieties, one granite and the other green-coloured chlorite was used for the buildings and the idols. Much of the beauty of the Vijayanagara temples is produced by their pillars. Pointing out, the same. Percy Brown writes, "Much of the intricacy and rich beauty of Vijayanagar type of temple was produced by the number and prominence of its pillarS and piers and the manner in which they are sculptured into the most complicated compositions, strange and manifold, so that each becomes a figurative drama in stone. Four types of pillars are discernible from among the temples such as Vitthala. Hazara Rama and others. In the first type, the shaft becomes merely the central core for the attachment of an involved group of statues of heroic size chiselled entirely in the round. In the second variety, circling round the central column, a cluster of slender, miniature pillars often referred as musical pillars on account of the sounds they produce when they ere hit by a stone or a coil are seen. The third type consists of the shaft composed of a series of small scale shrines. The fourth variety relates to the type where the shaft has sixteen or eighteen-sided surface. In response to the demand for more richness of detail, the corbel of the pillar is elaborated into a vault terminating in en inverted lotus bud. The Vijayanagar kings were the force behind the artistic activity of the period. The finest of this movement is seen in the magnificent examples at Vijayanagar, once noted for gaiety and colour, now deserted and known popularly as Hampi. Though the city became a victim of destruction and  plunder, it retains its charm even in the ruins'. Expressing his admiration for the ruins at Hampi, Percy Brown records, "No remains of this city recall more vividly the story of the forgotten empire of Vijayanagar than these massive terraces, still impressive examples of. architecture in spite of their mutilated superstructures" Among the temples at Hampi, the most sacred Virupaksha temple is said to have been built prior to the foundation of the City, but many additions were made to it by Harihara I and Krishnadevaraya. The temple of Vitthala is a fine example of the Vijayanagar style. It 'shows the extreme limit in florid magnificence to which the style advanced. Its construction began in the reign of Devaraya Il and was continued even upto 1565 A.D. The temple lies in a rectangular courtyard of 538 ft. by 310 ft. This courtyard is in fact cloistered with entrances on three sides having three Gopurams. The central structure dedicated to Vishnu in the form of Vithoba is a long and low structure 220 ft. in length and 20 ft. in width aligned from east to west. The super structure of the central shrine has since fallen. The other structures consist of a closed Mandapa, and a Mahamandapa and slightly to the side of it lies the Kalyanamandapa. Separated from these structures lies the stone chariot in front of the Mahamandapa. The Mahamandapa, noted for its supremely rich appearance, is a columned pavilion built on a richly moulded and sculptured plinth 5 ft. high. The grace of the 56 pillars inside, each 12 ft. high hewn out of solid blocks of granite to form intricate compositions of sculptures, is unparalleled. The  Kalyanamandapa on the other hand, in addition to the pillars, is significant for its beautiful flexion of the cornice. An exquisite specimen of Vijayanagar craftsmanship is the stone chariot. 1t has realistically revolving stone wheels and to a fairly ample scale of a temple car, with every feature imitated in granite, even to the elephant forms which guard the steps'. 

 The Hazara Rama temple, with an enormous walled enclosure (24ft. high), served as a place of worship for the members of the royal family. It was built by Krishnadevaraya during the period between 1513 A.D. and 1520 A.D. ft consists of a central shrine, an Amman shrine. Kalyanamandapa and other Mandapas. The main Vimana is partly stone-built and partly brick-built. The temple is famous for its relief sculptures on inner walls depicting the Ramayana scenes. The other temples like Achyutaraya, Krishna, Pattabhirama and Maiyavanta at Hampi exhibit the same characteristics of the VijayanagƏr style., The Vijayanagar rulers restored many shrines throughout south India and lavished wealth upon them. Krishnaraya provided the huge towers, called rayaguras after him and pillared halls to the temples at Tirupati, Srirangam, Kanchi, Tadipatri, Vellore and other places. The story of the forgotten empire is recalled by other structures like the kings Audiance Hall. Throne platform. Lotus Mahal, Queen's bath, the remnants of the fort watch tower. elephant and horse stables. the main market area. Royat balance and the lankasaJa and the colossal monolithic images of Narasimha and Ganesha and also the palaces of Penugonda and Chandragiri, The religious impulse of the Vijayanagar period inspired the people to have beautiful paintings in their temples. The ceilings of the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples were finely painted. The best specimens Vijayanagar paintings are contained in temples at Somapatem, Tripurantakam and Lepakshi. The Lepakshi Virabhadresvara temple near Hindupur in the Anantapur district was constructed by Penugonda Virupanna, the treasury officer of Achyutaraya. It is famous for its natvamandapa with delicately carved lite-size musicians and dancers, the huge monolithic Nandi and the  mandapa ceilings with richly painted scenes from the Puranas and the Epics