The Aurangzeb

Introduction

Aurangzeb, also known as Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir, was the sixth and one of the most controversial emperors of the Mughal Empire. He ruled from 1658 until his death in 1707, marking the longest reign of any Mughal emperor, spanning nearly 50 years. His reign is often characterized by both his military expansions and his strict interpretation of Islamic law, which left a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent. 

Early Life and Ascension to the Throne 

 Aurangzeb was born on November 3, 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat, to Emperor Shah Jahan and his queen, Mumtaz Mahal, for whom the famous Taj Mahal was built. He was the third son of Shah Jahan, and his early life was marked by intense rivalry with his brothers for the Mughal throne. Aurangzeb was well-educated, with a strong grounding in the Quran, Persian literature, and Islamic jurisprudence. He was also known for his prowess in archery and

horseback riding.  After Shah Jahan fell seriously ill in 1657, a power struggle erupted among his sons. Aurangzeb defeated his brothers—Dara Shikoh, Shuja, and Murad—and imprisoned his father to take control of the throne in 1658. Dara Shikoh, the eldest brother and the most favored by Shah Jahan, was executed by Aurangzeb after a decisive battle. 

 

Reign as Emperor 

 

Military Campaigns: Aurangzeb was a military genius who significantly expanded the Mughal Empire. He spent a considerable part of his reign in military campaigns to suppress rebellions and conquer new territories. His conquests included the annexation of the Deccan states of Bijapur and Golconda, extending the empire to its greatest territorial extent.

 Aurangzeb's military campaigns were a defining feature of his reign, as he sought to expand and consolidate the Mughal Empire. His campaigns spanned the Indian subcontinent, from the northern frontiers to the southern Deccan region, and played a crucial role in the empire reaching its greatest territorial extent. However, these continuous wars also strained the empire's resources and contributed to its eventual decline. 

 

Early Military Campaigns 

 

Campaign Against the Rajputs: Early in his reign, Aurangzeb sought to subdue the Rajputs, who had been powerful allies of the Mughal Empire under his predecessors. The Rajputs, particularly the kingdoms of Mewar and Marwar, resisted Mughal dominance. Aurangzeb’s campaigns in the Rajput territories were marked by fierce resistance, especially from Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar and later by the Rathore clan of Marwar. The Mughal-Rajput conflicts led to prolonged warfare, but eventually, the Rajputs were forced into submission, although they remained a significant military challenge throughout his reign. 

 

Conquest of Bijapur and Golconda: Aurangzeb turned his attention to the Deccan region, where the Shia Muslim Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda had remained semi-independent. 

In 1686, Aurangzeb successfully annexed Bijapur after a long and costly siege. The following year, Golconda was also captured, leading to the fall of the Qutb Shahi dynasty. These conquests were crucial as they secured the vast wealth of the Deccan for the Mughal Empire and marked the zenith of Mughal territorial expansion. 

 

 Conflict with the Marathas: The most challenging and prolonged military campaign of Aurangzeb's reign was against the Marathas, a rising Hindu power in the Deccan led by Shivaji and later his son Sambhaji. Shivaji, a formidable leader, initially came into conflict with the Mughals due to Aurangzeb's expansionist policies. Despite numerous attempts, the Mughals

struggled to defeat the Marathas, who employed guerrilla warfare tactics effectively against the Mughal forces. Even after Shivaji's death in 1680, the Marathas continued to resist Mughal domination under Sambhaji and later Rajaram. Aurangzeb personally led a campaign against the Marathas, which lasted over two decades and drained the empire’s resources. Despite capturing and executing Sambhaji in 1689, the Marathas regrouped and continued their resistance, eventually emerging as a dominant power in the region. 

 

Campaigns in Assam and the Northwest: Aurangzeb also directed military efforts towards the northeastern region, where the Ahom Kingdom in Assam posed a challenge to Mughal authority. Despite initial successes, the Mughals were eventually forced to retreat after the Battle of Saraighat in 1671, a major naval battle where the Ahoms successfully defended their territory. In the northwest, Aurangzeb faced resistance from the Afghan tribes and the Sikh community in Punjab. The Sikhs, under Guru Gobind Singh, became increasingly militant in response to Aurangzeb’s persecution and policies, leading to the emergence of the Khalsa and a significant uprising against Mughal authority. 

 

 

Religious Policies: Aurangzeb is often remembered for his orthodox Islamic policies. He reversed many of the liberal policies of his predecessors, such as the promotion of music and arts. He reintroduced the jizya tax on non-Muslims, which had been abolished by Akbar, and enforced the sharia law more rigorously. Aurangzeb banned the practice of Hindu rituals at court, ordered the destruction of several Hindu temples, and converted numerous temples into mosques, which led to significant resentment among his non-Muslim subjects. 

Aurangzeb's religious policies were among the most defining and controversial aspects of his reign. Unlike his predecessors, who were generally more tolerant and promoted a syncretic culture that blended elements of Hinduism and Islam, Aurangzeb was known for his strict adherence to orthodox Sunni Islam. His policies reflected this orthodoxy, leading to significant changes in the Mughal Empire's approach to religion and governance. 

 

Reintroduction of Jizya Tax: One of Aurangzeb's most controversial measures was the reimposition of the jizya, a tax on non-Muslims, in 1679. This tax had been abolished by his great-grandfather Akbar as part of his policy of religious tolerance. By reinstating it, Aurangzeb reinforced the distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims within the empire. 

The jizya tax was deeply unpopular among Hindus and other non-Muslim communities, leading to resentment and resistance against Aurangzeb's rule. 

 

Destruction of Hindu Temples: Aurangzeb is often criticized for his policy of temple destruction. He ordered the demolition of several prominent Hindu temples and converted many others into mosques. Notable examples include the destruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi and the Krishna Janmabhoomi temple in Mathura. While temple

destruction was not unprecedented in Indian history, Aurangzeb's actions were particularly significant due to their scale and the symbolic importance of the sites targeted. This policy was seen as an attempt to assert Islamic supremacy and diminish the power of Hindu religious institutions. 

 

Promotion of Islamic Law (Sharia): Aurangzeb sought to govern the empire according to Islamic principles. He compiled the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a comprehensive legal code based on Sharia law, which became the reference for judicial decisions during his reign. This legal code

was used to regulate both public and private life, including matters of trade, marriage, inheritance, and criminal justice. The emphasis on Sharia law marked a departure from the more flexible and diverse legal system that had been practiced under previous Mughal rulers. 

 

Persecution of Religious Minorities: Aurangzeb's reign was marked by increased persecution of religious minorities, particularly Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains. This included forced conversions, restrictions on religious practices, and limitations on the construction and repair of non-Muslim places of worship. The Sikhs, under their 9th Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, were particularly targeted. In 1675, Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed for refusing to convert to Islam, an event that led to growing resistance among the Sikh community and the eventual formation of the Khalsa under Guru Gobind Singh. 

 

Restrictions on Festivals and Arts: Aurangzeb also imposed restrictions on Hindu festivals and public celebrations. He banned the practice of Holi and Diwali in the Mughal court and prohibited music and dancing, which were seen as un-Islamic. He even dismissed court musicians and closed the royal music department, which had flourished under previous emperor. This puritanical approach extended to other forms of cultural expression as well. Aurangzeb discouraged the use of portraits and discouraged patronage of the arts, leading

to a decline in the rich cultural traditions that had been a hallmark of the Mughal court. 

 

Building of Mosques and Islamic Education: Aurangzeb actively promoted the construction of mosques and religious schools (madrasas) across the empire. He funded the building of new mosques, including the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, one of the largest and most iconic mosques of the Mughal period. He also encouraged the spread of Islamic education and ensured that madrasas received adequate funding and support. 

 

Administration and Economy: Aurangzeb was a competent administrator, known for his personal austerity and commitment to justice. He was deeply involved in the day-to-day administration and sought to purify the empire by eliminating what he saw as corrupt

practices. However, his constant military campaigns drained the empire’s treasury, leading to financial difficulties. Aurangzeb's economic policies during his reign as the Mughal Emperor were influenced by his military ambitions, religious conservatism, and efforts to maintain imperial stability. His economic strategies aimed to fund extensive military campaigns, support administrative functions, and uphold Islamic principles, but they also contributed to financial strain and economic challenges within the empire. 

 

Taxation and Revenue Collection: Aurangzeb's extensive military campaigns, particularly in the Deccan and against the Marathas, required substantial financial resources. As a result, he implemented various measures to increase revenue collection, including the reintroduction of taxes that had been previously reduced or abolished. Jizya Tax The reimposition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679 was not only a religious measure but also a significant source of revenue for the empire. However, it led to resentment among non-Muslim communities and contributed to social and economic tensions. 

 

Land Revenue System: The Zabt system, established by Akbar, continued to be the primary

method of land revenue collection during Aurangzeb’s reign. This system involved assessing and fixing land revenue based on the quality of land and its produce.  Aurangzeb sought to ensure efficient collection of land revenue to finance his military expeditions and maintain the empire's administrative machinery. However, frequent military campaigns and administrative costs strained the system and sometimes led to over taxation of peasants, exacerbating agrarian distress. 

 

Trade and Commerce: Aurangzeb's economic policies had mixed impacts on trade and commerce. While he maintained the empire's control over major trade routes and sought to expand commercial activities, his focus on military conquests and administrative stability often overshadowed efforts to foster economic growth. The empire continued to engage in lucrative trade with European powers, particularly the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French. However, internal economic policies did not always prioritize the development of domestic industries or trade relations that could have bolstered economic prosperity. 

 

Public Works and Infrastructure: Aurangzeb did invest in public works and infrastructure projects, particularly in regions affected by his military campaigns. These projects included the construction of roads, bridges, and irrigation systems to support agriculture and facilitate trade. However, the financial strain caused by continuous military engagements limited the scope and effectiveness of these infrastructure developments, often leaving regional economies vulnerable to disruptions caused by warfare and administrative instability. 

 

Impact on Economy and Legacy: Aurangzeb's economic policies had long-term consequences for the Mughal Empire. The heavy taxation and financial demands of military campaigns contributed to economic stagnation and social unrest, particularly among agrarian communities. The empire's economic resources were increasingly diverted toward maintaining military supremacy and administrative control, rather than fostering sustainable

economic growth or addressing socioeconomic inequalities.  Aurangzeb's policies, combined with religious and social tensions exacerbated by his reign, contributed to the gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the decades following his death. Economic challenges, coupled with political fragmentation and external pressures, weakened the empire's ability to sustain its

territorial integrity and imperial authority. 

Legacy 

Decline of the Mughal Empire: Despite his initial successes, Aurangzeb’s reign ultimately led to the weakening of the Mughal Empire. The vast expansion of the empire made it difficult to

govern, and the numerous wars of succession after his death further destabilized the empire. His religious policies also alienated large sections of the population, particularly Hindus, Sikhs, and Marathas, leading to widespread rebellions. Aurangzeb remains one of the most polarizing figures in Indian history. Some view him as a devout Muslim ruler who upheld Islamic law and expanded the empire, while others see him as a tyrant whose religious intolerance and autocratic rule sowed the seeds for the empire’s decline. Aurangzeb died on March 3, 1707, at the age of 88 in Ahmednagar, in present-day Maharashtra. His death marked the beginning of the end for the Mughal Empire, as his successors failed to maintain the same level of control and the empire gradually fragmented. 

 

Conclusion

 

Aurangzeb remains one of the most complex and debated figures in Indian history. His reign, marked by territorial expansion, military prowess, and a strict adherence to Islamic orthodoxy, brought the Mughal Empire to its greatest geographical extent. However, his policies of religious intolerance, heavy taxation, and relentless military campaigns also sowed the seeds of the empire's eventual decline. While he is often remembered as a devout and capable ruler, his legacy is marred by the social and political fractures that emerged under his rule, contributing to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire after his death. Ultimately, Aurangzeb's reign serves as a powerful reminder of the delicate balance between power, religion, and governance in the shaping of history.